Stators

     The stator is a group of conductors that are held stationary at right angles to the rotating magnetic field.

      As the rotor turns the magnetic field cuts across the stators conductors, inducing current into the conductors  

The stator is the stationary part of a rotor system, found in an electric generator, electric motor and biological rotors.
Depending on the configuration of a spinning electromotive device the stator may act as the field magnet, interacting with the armature to create motion, or it may act as the armature, receiving its influence from moving field coils on the rotor.


The first DC generators (known as dynamos) and DC motors put the field coils on the stator, and the power generation or motive reaction coils on the rotor. This was necessary because a continuously moving power switch known as the commutator is needed to keep the field correctly aligned across the spinning rotor. The commutator must become larger and more robust as the current increases.


The stator of these devices may be either a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. Where the stator is an electromagnet, the coil which energizes it is known as the field coil or field winding.


An AC alternator is able to produce power across multiple high-current power generation coils connected in parallel, eliminating the need for the commutator. Placing the field coils on the rotor allows for an inexpensive slip ring mechanism to transfer high-voltage, low current power to the rotating field coil

Stator Winding 

A stator winding is simply the stationary winding in an electric motor, either for rotary or linear. 
The stator in an AC motor is a wire coil, called a stator winding, which is built into the 
motor. 


When this coil is energized by AC power, a rotating magnetic field is produced.

The stator windings have a very low resistance and the winding is also insulated from the frame.
  The motor stator winding is identical to a generator armature that has a like amount of poles. 


Each stator winding is overlapped and is electrically and mechanically 120 degrees out of 
phase

Starter Motor

Starting system, Starter motor

A starter is an electric motor that turns over the engine to start it.
A starter consists of the very powerful DC electric motor and the starter solenoid that is usually attached to the motor (see the picture).






A starter motor requires a very high current to crank the engine, that's why it's connected to the battery with large cables (see lower diagram).
The negative (ground) cable connects the "-" battery terminal to the engine cylinder block close to the starter.
The positive cable connects the "+" battery terminal to the starter solenoid.
The starter solenoid works as an electric switch - when actuated, it closes the circuit and connects the starter motor to the battery. At the same time, it pushes the starter gear forward to mesh with the engine's flywheel.

How the starting system works:
When you turn the ignition key to the "Start" position, the battery voltage goes through the starter control circuit and activates the starter solenoid, which in turn energizes the starter motor. The starter motor cranks the engine.
The starter motor can only be operated when the automatic transmission shifter is in the "Park" or "Neutral" position or, if the car has a manual transmission, when the clutch pedal is depressed.
To accomplish this, there is a Neutral safety switch installed at the transmission shifter or at the clutch pedal.
When the automatic transmission is not in "Park" or "Neutral" (or when the clutch pedal is not depressed), the neutral safety switch is open and the starter relay disconnects the starter control circuit.







The modern starter motor is either a permanent-magnet or a series-parallel wound direct current electric motor with a starter solenoid (similar to a relay) mounted on it. When current from the starting battery is applied to the solenoid, usually through a key-operated switch, the solenoid engages a lever that pushes out the drive pinion on the starter driveshaft and meshes the pinion with the starter ring gear on the flywheel of the engine.

The solenoid also closes high-current contacts for the starter motor, which begins to turn. Once the engine starts, the key-operated switch is opened, a spring in the solenoid assembly pulls the pinion gear away from the ring gear, and the starter motor stops.
 The starter's pinion is clutched to its driveshaft through an overrunning sprag clutch which permits the pinion to transmit drive in only one direction. In this manner, drive is transmitted through the pinion to the flywheel ring gear, but if the pinion remains engaged (as for example because the operator fails to release the key as soon as the engine starts, or if there is a short and the solenoid remains engaged), the pinion will spin independently of its driveshaft.
 This prevents the engine driving the starter, for such backdrive would cause the starter to spin so fast as to fly apart. However, this sprag clutch arrangement would preclude the use of the starter as a generator if employed in hybrid scheme mentioned above, unless modifications are made.
 Also, a standard starter motor is only designed for intermittent use which would preclude its use as a generator; the electrical components are designed only to operate for typically under 30 seconds before overheating (by too-slow dissipation of heat from ohmic losses), to save weight and cost. This is the same reason why most automobile owner's manuals instruct the operator to pause for at least ten seconds after each ten or fifteen seconds of cranking the engine, when trying to start an engine that does not start immediately.

Charging system functions

n  Recharges the battery after cranking the engine.

n  Supplies electrical energy to the electrical  system when the engine is running.

n  Compensates for the changing electrical loads on   vehicles battery or electrical system while the engine was not running

n  Compensates for any electrical drain  on the battery

n   Act as a smoothing device to compensate for voltage irregularities. 

   Types Of Charging System

n DC Generator: (used on older cars)

§Conductor (Armature) is rotating

§Magnetic field (field coil) is stationary

§Same as normal starter motor minus the drive on the starters

§Complex voltage control: Needs cut out, voltage and current regulators

§If cut out doesn’t work it self destructs. 

Diodes

Diodes
In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electric current in only one direction. The term usually refers to a semiconductor diode, the most common type today. This is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material connected to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode (now little used except in some high-power technologies) is a vacuum tube with two electrodes: a plate and a cathode.

The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's forward direction) while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current, and to extract modulation from radio signals in radio receivers.

However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple on-off action. This is due to their complex non-linear electrical characteristics, which can be tailored by varying the construction of their P-N junction. These are exploited in special purpose diodes that perform many different functions. For example, specialized diodes are used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to electronically tune radio and TV receivers (varactor diodes), to generate radio frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes), and to produce light (light emitting diodes). Tunnel diodes exhibit negative resistance, which makes them useful in some types of circuits.

Function

Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol shows the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a valve and early diodes were actually called valves.

Small signal diodes can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you are using a germanium diode (codes beginning OA...) in which case you should use a heat sink clipped to the lead between the joint and the diode body. A standard crocodile clip can be used as a heat sink.

Signal diodes (small current)

Signal diodes are used to process information (electrical signals) in circuits, so they are only required to pass small currents of up to 100mA. General purpose signal diodes such as the 1N4148 are made from silicon and have a forward voltage drop of 0.7V.


Germanium diodes such as the OA90 have a lower forward voltage drop of 0.2V and this makes them suitable to use in radio circuits as detectors which extract the audio signal from the weak radio signal.

For general use, where the size of the forward voltage drop is less important, silicon diodes are better because they are less easily damaged by heat when soldering, they have a lower resistance when conducting, and they have very low leakage currents when a reverse voltage is applied.


Signal diodes are also used to protect transistors and ICs from the brief high voltage produced when a relay coil is switched off. The diagram shows how a protection diode is connected 'backwards' across the relay coil.

Capacitors

A capacitor is a device for storing electric charge. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two conductors separated by a non-conductor. Capacitors used as parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils separated by a layer of insulating film.

A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes.

The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Function

Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying DC supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals.


There are many types of capacitor but they can be split into two groups, polarised and unpolarised. Each group has its own circuit symbol.

Resistors

What do resistors do?

Resistors limit current. In a typical application, a resistor is connected in series with an LED.

A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component which implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a current I will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. The reciprocal of the constant of proportionality is known as the resistance R, since, with a given voltage V, a larger value of R further "resists" the flow of current I as given by Ohm's law:

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits

The 'box' symbol for a fixed resistor is popular in the UK and Europe. A 'zig-zag' symbol is used in America and Japan.

esistors are used with transducers to make sensor subsystems. Transducers are electronic components which convert energy from one form into another, where one of the forms of energy is electrical. A light dependent resistor, or LDR, is an example of an input transducer. Changes in the brightness of the light shining onto the surface of the LDR result in changes in its resistance.

Colour code

How can the value of a resistor be worked out from the colours of the bands? Each colour represents a number according to the following scheme:

Parallel Circuits

A parallel circuit has more than one resistor (anything that uses electricity to do work) and gets its name from having multiple (parallel) paths to move along . Charges can move through any of several paths. If one of the items in the circuit is broken then no charge will move through that path, but other paths will continue to have charges flow through them. Parallel circuits are found in most household electrical wiring. This is done so that lights don't stop working just because you turned your TV off.
Below is an animation of a parallel circuit where electrical energy is shown as gravitational potential energy (GPE). The greater the change in height, the more energy is used or the more work is done.






we have three resistors, but this time they form more than one continuous path for electrons to flow. There's one path from 8 to 7 to 2 to 1 and back to 8 again. There's another from 8 to 7 to 6 to 3 to 2 to 1 and back to 8 again. And then there's a third path from 8 to 7 to 6 to 5 to 4 to 3 to 2 to 1 and back to 8 again. Each individual path (through R₁, R₂, and R₃) is called a branch.
The defining characteristic of a parallel circuit is that all components are connected between the same set of electrically common points. Looking at the schematic diagram, we see that points 1, 2, 3, and 4 are all electrically common. So are points 8, 7, 6, and 5. Note that all resistors as well as the battery are connected between these two sets of points.











a parallel circuit is defined as one where all components are connected between the same set of electrically common points. Another way of saying this is that all components are connected across each other's terminals. From this definition, three rules of parallel circuits follow: all components share the same voltage; resistances diminish to equal a smaller, total resistance; and branch currents add to equal a larger, total current. Just as in the case of series circuits, all of these rules find root in the definition of a parallel circuit. If you understand that definition fully, then the rules are nothing more than footnotes to the definition.

Electricity Circuits

nSeries circuit:

   There is only one voltage supply to the circuit. Voltage is used up as it flows through the circuit. More voltage is used up where there is more resistance. The current is the same in all areas of the circuit. A series circuit is a circuit where there is only one path from the source through all of the loads and back to the source. This means that all of the current in the circuit must flow through all of the loads.

One example of a series circuit is a string of old Christmas lights. There is only one path for the current to flow. Opening or breaking a series circuit such as this at any point in its path causes the entire circuit to "open" or stop operating. That's because the basic requirement for the circuit to operate a continuous, closed loop path is no longer met. This is the main disadvantage of a series circuit. If any one of the light bulbs or loads burns out or is removed, the entire circuit stops operating. Many of today's circuits are actually a combination of elements in series and parallel to minimize the inconvenience of a pure series circuit.

Battries

Automotive battery

An automotive battery is a type of rechargeable battery that supplies electric energy to an automobile.^[1] Usually this refers to an SLI battery (starting, lighting, ignition) to power the starter motor, the lights, and the ignition system of a vehicle’s engine. An automotive battery may also be a traction battery used for the main power source of an electric vehicle.

Automotive SLI batteries are usually lead-acid type, and are made of six galvanic cells in series to provide a 12 volt system. Each cell provides 2.1 volts for a total of 12.6 volt at full charge. Heavy vehicles such as highway trucks, often equipped with Diesel engines, may have two batteries in series for a 24 volt system, or may have parallel strings of batteries.
Lead-acid batteries are made up of plates of lead and separate plates of lead dioxide, which are submerged into an electrolyte solution of about 35% sulfuric acid and 65% water.^[2] This causes a chemical reaction that releases electrons, allowing them to flow through conductors to produce electricity. As the battery discharges, the acid of the electrolyte reacts with the materials of the plates, changing their surface to lead sulfate. When the battery is recharged, the chemical reaction is reversed: the lead sulfate reforms into lead oxide and lead. With the plates restored to their original condition, the process may now be repeated.

Fluid level

Car batteries using lead-antimony plates would require regular watering top-up to replace water lost due to electrolysis on each charging cycle. By changing the alloying element to calcium, more recent designs have lower water loss unless overcharged. Modern car batteries have reduced maintenance requirements, and may not provide caps for addition of water to the cells. Such batteries include extra electrolyte above the plates to allow for losses during the battery life. If the battery has easily detachable caps then a top-up with distilled water may be required from time to time. Prolonged overcharging or charging at excessively high voltage causes some of the water in the electrolyte to be broken up into hydrogen and oxygen gases, which escape from the cells. If the electrolyte liquid level drops too low, the plates are exposed to air, lose capacity, and are damaged. The sulfuric acid in the battery normally does not require replacement since it is not consumed even on overcharging. Impurities or additives in the water will reduce the life and performance of the battery. Manufacturers usually recommend use of demineralized or distilled water since even potable tap water can contain high levels of minerals.



Car Battery Testing

The only way to gauge a battery's performance is to test the voltage output it is offering. The output voltage levels that it provides with and without load can give you an idea of battery health.

So to test a car battery, arm yourself with a voltmeter and set the dials on the 0-50 V range. Disconnect the battery from the car connections by following the details in the car manual to the word. While doing so attach a 9V alkaline battery to the car PCM as otherwise it loses its programmed settings.

Connect positive red lead of voltmeter to positive of battery terminal and the black lead to the negative terminal. Check the voltage level. If its in the range of 12.6 to 12.8, your battery is doing well and adequately charged. Anything below that like 10 V or lower means it is in need of charging.

Now reconnect the battery and start the car. Keep it in idling mode and check the voltage reading between the same points again. If it is around 10V, then the battery is okay. Anything below 10 V means that either the car battery needs charging, or some other problems are causing the voltage decline.

Next thing to check is the fluid levels in the battery. To do this you must disconnect the battery again of course. Open up the battery cover and peep into the compartments of cells inside. The electrode plates should be submerged in the electrolytic fluid. If they are not, you must add distilled water to the cell compartment only uptil the fluid level rises about a one fourth of an inch above the plate. Another reason causing low battery charging may be, due to car alternator problems. Get it checked with the mechanic as soon as possible

Alternators

What is an Alternator?
An alternator is fitted to a motor vehicle to maintain the charge in the battery while the vehicle is in operation. engine runs on air, fuel and spark. The spark is the center of it all, and for that we need electricity. Your battery supplies electricity, but only enough to get you a few miles down the road. We need more. That's where the alternator comes in.The alternator continually charges the battery.


                                                                           Major components of charging system:

nBattery

nDrive belt

nWiring

nWarning light (charge indicator)

nAlternator

nVoltage regulator

Rotor winding to ground test:


Set the meter on 2K. Place the black lead on the centre of the rotor shaft indicated. Place the red lead on the slip ring as indicated.
There should be no circuit between the rotor shaft and the slip ring.
The meter should read infinity
If there is a circuit the rotor winding has shorted to ground and will need to be replaced. 

Spec	Meter reading	Pass / Fail
Infinite	Infinite	Pass

Rotor winding internal resistance test:

Set the Ohms meter on 200Ω, test for internal meter resistance by touching the two leads together. Internal resistance of the meter must be taken away from the actual reading.

Place one end of each lead on the slip rings as indicated to obtain reading. The reading specification is 2Ω to 6Ω. Internal resistance 0.3

Spec	Meter reading	Less Internal Meter Resistance	Actual	Pass / Fail
2 - 6 Ω	3.2	3.2-0.3	32.9	Pass

Resting Stator Winding resistance:
Set Ohms meter on 200Ω, test for internal meter resistance by touching the two leads together. Internal resistance of the meter must be taken away from the actual reading. Select the common terminal of the stator winding terminals A to D. Connect the black lead to the common point. Connect the red lead to the other terminal one after the other and record their resistance they should all be approximately the same from 0.0Ω - .2Ω.

Testing stator winding to ground test:

Spec	Meter reading	Less Internal Meter Resistance	Actual	Pass/ Fail
0.0 Ω - .2Ω	0.3Ω	0.3Ω - 0.3	0	Pass
0.0 Ω - .2Ω	0.3Ω	0.3Ω - 0.3	0	Pass
0.0 Ω - .2Ω	0.3Ω	0.3Ω - 0.3	0	Pass

Set the meter on 2K. Place the red lead of the meter on the common stator winding terminal. the black lead of the meter on the body of Alternator as indicated E.(Second image from page 4)

Testing the rectifier positive diodes:

Set the meter on diode test mode. put the common lead on B terminal. Then touch the positive lead on each of the P terminals and record the reading.

Place the positive lead on B terminal. Then touch the common lead on each of the P  terminals and record the readings. The resistance should be high.

Results for positive diode testing with common lead on B
No	Spec 0.5 VD to 0.7 VD	Pass / Fail
1	.528 VD	Pass
2	.527 VD	Pass
3	.519 VD	Pass
4	.524 VD	Pass

Results for positive diode testing with positive lead on B
No	Spec Infinite	Pass / Fail
1	Infinite	Pass
2	Infinite	Pass
3	Infinite	Pass
4	Infinite	Pass

Testing the rectifier Negative diodes
Set the meter on diode test mode. Put the common lead on E terminal. Then touch the positive lead on each of the P terminals and record the readings. The resistance should be high. 

Place the positive lead on E terminal. Then touch the common lead on each of the P terminals and record the readings.

Results for positive diode testing with positive lead on B
No	Spec Infinite	Pass / Fail
1	Infinite	Pass
2	Infinite	Pass
3	Infinite	Pass
4	Infinite	Pass

Results for negative diode testing with positive lead on E
No	Spec 0.5 VD to 0.7 VD	Pass / Fail
1	.510	Pass
2	.527	Pass
3	.517	Pass
4	.520	Pass

Testing the voltage regulator

Locate the wiring diagram for regulator using following information on the regulator to identify the correct specifications. If the regulator number doesn't match any specified, use the most common set point voltage for the specification then wire to diagram test.

Regulator spec’s chart
Part Number	M15 12600-0610 3K 08		Yes / N/A
Field Setting	A	Checked	Yes /NA
Voltage	12	Checked	Yes /NA
Set Point Spec	14.6	Obtained	Yes /NA

Now you have checked all the settings, have attained the set point voltage spec and understand how to use the regulator tester, continue to record your findings.

Regulator results chart
Short Circuit Light	MUST BE OFF or turn off tester - OFF		Pass
Warning Light	Should come on and stay on - ON		Pass
Field Light	Should flash continuously - Flashy		Pass
Set Point voltage	Actual reading	14.6 – 14.7	Pass

Common charging system wiring diagram and symbols